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A Comprehensive History of the U.S. Navy's First Major Pacific Campaign
Introduction
The Netherlands East Indies Engagements of January 23 - February 27, 1942, marked the United States Navy's first sustained combat operations in the Pacific Theater following Pearl Harbor. This desperate campaign to defend the oil-rich Dutch colonies against Japanese invasion would cost the U.S. Navy its entire Asiatic Fleet, yet demonstrated the courage and determination that would characterize American naval forces throughout World War II.
Strategic Background and ABDA Command Formation
The Formation of ABDACOM
Following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, Allied leadership recognized the need for unified command in Southeast Asia. The American-British-Dutch-Australian (ABDA) Command, or ABDACOM, was the short-lived supreme command for all Allied forces in South East Asia in early 1942, during the Pacific War in World War II. Activated on January 15, 1942, the American-British-Dutch-Australian (ABDA) Command was ordered to combat the Japanese expansion in South-East Asia.
The command structure established clear hierarchies with British Field Marshal Sir Archibald Wavell as Supreme Allied Commander. On his relocation to Java, Hart was named Commander, Naval Forces, ABDA Command, a joint British, Dutch, American and Australian military command, formed for purposes of holding the southern portions of the Dutch East Indies against further Japanese advances.
Admiral Thomas C. Hart and Naval Command
Admiral Thomas C. Hart, commanding the U.S. Asiatic Fleet, became the initial naval commander for ABDA forces. Hart was appointed commander in chief, U.S. Asiatic Fleet on July 25, 1939, and was promoted to admiral the same day. He held that position at the commencement of hostilities in World War II between Japan and the United States in December 1941.
However, Hart continued to hold the position of commander for ABDA naval forces until relieved of operational responsibilities on February 12, 1942. He was succeeded by Dutch Admiral Conrad Helfrich, who would lead naval forces through the final devastating battles.
Major Naval Engagements and Battles
Battle of Balikpapan - January 23-24, 1942
The campaign's first major action occurred when On 23 January 1942 a force of four American destroyers attacked a Japanese invasion convoy in the Makassar Strait as it approached Balikpapan in Borneo. This engagement marked the first surface action in the Pacific War for the U.S. Navy since the Spanish-American War in 1898.
Battle of Makassar Strait - February 4, 1942
Air raids were frequent in the area, and Houston's gunners shot down four Japanese planes in the Battle of Bali Sea (also known as the Battle of Makassar Strait) on 4 February 1942, as Admiral Karel Doorman of the Royal Netherlands Navy took his force to engage Japanese reported to be at Balikpapan.
This battle proved particularly costly for American forces. In the fight, the Houston took a catastrophic bomb hit. It struck her after eight-inch main battery turret, disabling it, removing three of her nine eight-inch guns from her combat power. The light cruiser Marblehead was also severely damaged and forced to leave the theater.
Battle of Badung Strait - February 18-20, 1942
When the Japanese invaded Bali on February 18, 1942, the naval forces of the American-British-Dutch-Australia (ABDA) Command, led by Royal Netherlands Navy Rear Admiral Karel W.F.M. Doorman steamed to attack. In the resulting days, the Japanese drove off the ABDA force, and the airfield at Bali was captured, continuing the conquest of the Dutch East Indies.
The engagement resulted in significant Allied losses, with USS Stewart (DD-224) was damaged during the night engagement on February 19-20 and returned to Surabaya. Scuttled in March, following the Battles of the Java Sea and Sunda Strait, the destroyer was raised by the Japanese and commissioned as anti-submarine vessel CD-22.
Battle of the Java Sea - February 27, 1942
The climactic battle of the campaign occurred when Japanese amphibious forces gathered to strike at Java, and on 27 February 1942 the main Allied naval force, under Rear Admiral Karel Doorman, sailed northeast from Surabaya to intercept a convoy of the Japanese eastern invasion force approaching from the Makassar Strait.
Allied Order of Battle
The Allied eastern strike force consisted of two heavy cruisers (HMS Exeter and USS Houston), three light cruisers (Doorman's flagship HNLMS De Ruyter, HNLMS Java, HMAS Perth), and nine destroyers (HMS Electra, HMS Encounter, HMS Jupiter, HNLMS Kortenaer, HNLMS Witte de With, USS Alden, USS John D. Edwards, USS John D. Ford, and USS Paul Jones).
However, this multinational force faced severe challenges. Belonging to several different navies, the ships had practically no experience in each other's naval doctrine and fighting styles, and most crucially there was a language barrier between the Dutch speaking Karel Doorman and the English-speaking US, UK, and Australian ships, hindering communication.
The Battle Unfolds
The Battle of the Java Sea began when the American-British-Dutch-Australian (ABDA) naval command attempted to stop the Japanese invasion of Java on February 27, 1942. Led by Royal Netherlands Navy Rear Admiral Karel W.F.M. Doorman, the ABDA force was decimated in a seven-hour battle.
The devastating results included Royal Netherlands cruisers Java and De Ruyter (Doorman's flagship), along with Royal Netherlands destroyer Kortenauer. The Royal Navy (British) destroyers Electra and Jupiter were also sunk.
Battle of Sunda Strait - February 28 - March 1, 1942
The final act of the campaign unfolded when Houston and the Australian light cruiser HMAS Perth (D-29) retreating to the port of Tanjung Priok, located on the northern coast of Java. Perth and Houston proceeded to Tanjung Priok, arriving later that day. However, oil shortages meant they could be only half fueled, and they received no new ammunition.
The Battle of Sunda Strait ended the Allied defense of the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) and was the final battle the Navy's Asiatic Fleet participated in during World War II.
U.S. Navy Ships and Personnel
USS Houston (CA-30) - The "Galloping Ghost of the Java Coast"
The flagship of American forces in the campaign was the heavy cruiser USS Houston. USS Houston (CL/CA-30), was a Northampton-class cruiser of the United States Navy. She was the second Navy ship to bear the name "Houston". She was launched by Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company, Newport News, Virginia, on 7 September 1929, sponsored by Elizabeth Holcombe (daughter of Oscar Holcombe, then-mayor of Houston, Texas), and commissioned on 17 June 1930.
Specifications and Armament
Displacement 9,300 Tons, Dimensions, 600' 3" (oa) x 66' 1" x 23' (Max) Armament 9 x 8"/55, 4 x 5"/25, 6 x 21" tt. 4 Aircraft. Armor, 3 3/4" Belt, 2 1/2 Turrets, 1" Deck, 1 1/4 Conning Tower. Machinery, 107,000 SHP; Geared Turbines, 4 screws Speed, 32.7 Knots, Crew 621.
9 x 8" (203mm) /55 caliber main guns in three triple-gunned turrets. 4 x 5" (127mm) /25 caliber Anti-Aircraft (AA) guns. 2 x 3-pounder (47mm) saluting guns. 6 x 21" (533mm) torpedo tubes.
Presidential Connection
Houston held special significance as In honor of her history with the president, Houston became known as the "Little Flagship of the Fleet." President Franklin Roosevelt came aboard on 1 July 1934 at Annapolis, Maryland, for a cruise of almost 12,000 nautical miles (14,000 mi; 22,000 km) through the Caribbean and to Portland, Oregon, by way of Hawaii.
USS Marblehead (CL-12)
The light cruiser USS Marblehead was the other major American cruiser in the campaign. Marblehead was part of the Omaha-class of postwar light ("scout") cruisers launched in the 1920s with four smokestacks which gave them a distinctive appearance reminiscent of the smaller "four piper" destroyers of the Wickes and Clemson classes.
Damage and Heroic Escape
Forty-eight men were killed and another 20 injured. Marblehead was also hit by two bombs and badly damaged. The two ships limped into Tjilatjap, Java, for repairs. Domagalski argues in this ship's memoir that Captain Arthur Robinson's resourceful crew made the difference, from the commanding officer down to the mess stewards, all of whom took part in the "herculean task" to save their ship.
U.S. Navy Destroyer Forces
American destroyer forces played crucial roles throughout the campaign:
Destroyer Squadron 58 (DesRon 58)
Among these lucky ships were the only allied survivors of the Java Sea battle, the four American destroyers John D. Edwards, John D. Ford, Alden, and Paul Jones, which while underway in the Bali Strait encountered the Japanese destroyers Hatsuharu, Nenohi, Wakaba, and Hatsushimo and after a brief gunfight which inflicted no damage to either side successfully escaped to Australia.
Other U.S. Destroyers:
Japanese Forces and Weapons
Imperial Japanese Navy Order of Battle
The Japanese forces opposing ABDA represented some of the finest warships in the Imperial Japanese Navy:
Heavy Cruisers - Myōkō Class
IJN Nachi and IJN Haguro
Haguro was the third of the four-member Myōkō class of heavy cruisers (sometimes referred to as the Nachi class due to the second ship, Nachi, being completed before Myōkō, despite starting construction after); the other ships were Myōkō (妙高), Nachi (那智), and Ashigara (足柄). The ships of this class displaced 13,300 tons, were 201 metres (659 ft) long, and were capable of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph).
Haguro was originally equipped with ten 20 cm (7.9-inch)/50 naval guns in five twin turrets, three forward and two aft, making her the most powerful heavy cruiser in the world at the time of her commissioning. Her secondary battery consisted of six Type 10 12 cm (4.7-inch) dual purposed guns in six single mounts, a pair of 13.2 mm machine guns, and twelve 61 cm (24 inch) torpedo tubes in four triple mounts, a pair on each side.
Light Cruisers - Sendai Class
IJN Jintsu and IJN Naka
The light cruisers Naka and Jintsū were from the Sendai class and both laid down in 1922 and completed in 1925. Their sistership Sendai, which was not present at the battle, was completed in 1924. Both Naka and Jintsū carried seven 5.5" guns in single mount turrets, a feature of the period of their design. By 1941 the main armament was supplemented by eight 24" torpedoes in two quadruple mounts, as well as light AA weapons of course.
Japanese Destroyer Forces
The Japanese deployed multiple destroyer squadrons:
Destroyer Squadron 2 (DesRon 2) During the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February 1942, Jintsū and her destroyer groups (including DesDiv 7's Ushio, Sazanami, Yamakaze and Kawakaze and DesDiv 16's Yukikaze, Tokitsukaze, Amatsukaze and Hatsukaze)
The Deadly "Long Lance" Torpedo
Perhaps the most decisive weapon in Japanese hands was the Type 93 "Long Lance" torpedo. As they would continue to prove through 1942 and 1943, the 24in Japanese Long Lance torpedoes were the battle winners for the Japanese Navy. At 1727, Jintsū launched eight Type 93 "Long Lance" torpedoes at Doorman's force. These were followed by torpedoes from DesRon 2's destroyers.
Key Commanders and Naval Leaders
Allied Commanders
Admiral Thomas C. Hart, USN
Admiral Conrad Helfrich, RNN
Rear Admiral Karel Doorman, RNN
Captain Albert H. Rooks, USN
Japanese Commanders
Vice Admiral Takeo Takagi, IJN
Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka, IJN
Weapons Systems and Technology
U.S. Navy Weapons
Primary Armament
Torpedoes
Japanese Navy Weapons
Artillery
The Superior Type 93 "Long Lance" Torpedo
The Navy sustained losses of a total of 20 ships (including two of its three light cruisers) and 2,500 sailors killed in the course of the campaign. The Dutch navy had suffered from years of underfunding and came ill-prepared to face an enemy with more and heavier ships with better weapons, including the Long Lance-torpedo, with which the cruiser Haguro sank the light cruiser HNLMS De Ruyter.
Campaign Results and Strategic Impact
Allied Losses
Between the Battle of the Java Sea, the engagement in Sunda Strait and ships sunk while trying to retreat to Australia on 1 March 1942, the Allies lost ten ships and over 2,000 sailors in and around the Java Sea.
U.S. Navy Vessels Lost:
U.S. Navy Vessels Damaged:
The End of ABDA Command
This catastrophic defeat left the Southwest Pacific completely open to Japanese operations. Following the destruction of the ABDA strike force under Rear-Admiral Karel Doorman at the Battle of the Java Sea, in February–March 1942, ABDA effectively ceased to exist.
Strategic Consequences
The loss of the Netherlands East Indies had profound implications:
Legacy and Remembrance
The Netherlands East Indies Engagements campaign became eligible for the Asia-Pacific Campaign Medal with the specific campaign star for "Netherlands East Indies Engagements: January 23 – February 27, 1942." This recognition honors the service and sacrifice of those who fought in this crucial early campaign of the Pacific War.
Houston's fate was not fully known by the world for almost nine months, and the full story of her last fight was not told until the survivors were liberated from prison camps at the end of the war.
The campaign demonstrated both the courage of Allied naval forces and the devastating effectiveness of Japanese naval tactics and weaponry. While ending in defeat, it provided valuable lessons that would inform later Allied victories in the Pacific Theater.
Sources and References
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Additional Reading
